Postpartum period

The postpartum period refers to the six-to-eight-week period after the birth of a baby in which the body recovers from the changes caused by pregnancy and birth. During this time, the body undergoes several physiological changes, such as uterine involution, discharge of lochia, and the beginning of the lactation process. Women are also susceptible to complications during the postpartum period, such as infection, thrombosis, insufficient postpartum recovery, and postpartum depression. The fundal height measurement and the appearance of lochia (postpartum vaginal discharge) provide important clues to possible underlying conditions.

Low‑grade fever, shivering, and leukocytosis are common findings during the first 24 hours postpartum and do not necessarily indicate an infection.

Uterine involution

• Begins immediately after birth and the delivery of the placenta
• Afterpains: painful cramps from contractions of the uterus following childbirth
• The uterus returns to its normal size by the 6^th–8^th week postpartum.

Lochia (postpartum vaginal discharge)

• Definition
  • The birthing process and placental detachment lead to uterine lesions, which discharge a special secretion when healing.
  • This secretion, together with the cervical mucus and other components, forms the lochia.
• Most women pass lochia for about 4 weeks after delivery; in some cases, this lasts for 6–8 weeks.
  • Lochia rubra: blood red; approx. the first 4 days after birth
  • Lochia serosa: brown red; watery consistency, lasts approx. 2–3 weeks
  • Lochia alba: yellow white; lasts approx. 1–2 weeks

Weight loss

• Mean weight loss after delivery of the baby, amniotic fluid, and placenta: approx. 6 kg (13 lbs)
• Additional weight loss due to lochia discharge and uterine involution: approx. 2–7 kg (5–15 lbs)

References:^{[1][2][3][4][5]}

Breastfeeding ^[6][7][8]

General considerations

• It is recommended that infants be exclusively breastfed up to the age of 6 months.
• On-demand feeds are recommended.
• Breastfeeding plays an important role in mother-child bonding.

Physiology of lactation

• Lactogenesis: the process of mammary epithelial cell differentiation and milk production in the mammary gland that begins midpregnancy as a result of increased estrogen and progesterone levels
• Lactation is initiated by the delivery of the placenta → abrupt ↓ progesterone levels → ↑ prolactin → stimulation of milk secretion
• Maintaining lactation requires suckling, which stimulates the secretion of:
  • Prolactin; from the anterior pituitary: leads to stimulation of continued lactogenesis (milk production); and disruption of pulsatile GnRH secretion (causing lactational amenorrhea)
  • Oxytocin; from the posterior pituitary: leads to stimulation of milk ejection (letdown); and uterine contractions

Breast milk composition

Breast milk contains all the required nutrients (except vitamin D and vitamin K) for infants up to 6 months of age.

• Colostrum: the first milk produced during late pregnancy until 3–4 days postpartum; rich in proteins and immunoglobulins
• Mature milk is composed of:
  • Proteins, lactose and oligosaccharides, fats, minerals, trace elements, and vitamins
  • Proteins and cells that provide passive immunity in neonates
    • Immunoglobulins (secretory IgA), lactoferrin, lysozymes
    • Lymphocytes, macrophages
  • Bifidobacteria that contribute to the neonate's gastrointestinal flora

Benefits of breastfeeding ^[7]

• Infant benefits ^[9]
  • Decreased risk of middle-ear, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urinary tract infections
    • Breast milk immunoglobulins (especially IgA); and white blood cells provide passive immunity for the child
  • Better gastrointestinal function and motility
  • Lower risk of asthma, allergies, obesity, and diabetes mellitus
• Maternal benefits
  • Faster uterine involution and post-partum weight loss
  • Lower risk of ovarian and breast cancers
  • Postpartum contraception (lactational amenorrhea)
  • Improved bonding with the infant
  • Reduced costs

Contraindications to breastfeeding ^[7][10]

• Absolute
  • Maternal factors: HIV infection (regardless of viral load or treatment)
  • Infant factors: galactosemia
• Temporary (relative)
  • Maternal factors
    • Infections: human T-cell lymphotropic virus, brucellosis, tuberculosis ; , active herpes simplex on the breasts
    • Current recreational substance use
    • Use of substances; that are excreted in milk (e.g., tetracycline, chloramphenicol, chemotherapy agents, lithium, alcohol, illicit drugs)
  • Infant factors: phenylketonuria, and maple syrup urine disease

Complications and problems

• Inadequate milk production or intake
• Breastfeeding jaundice
• Breast milk jaundice
• Mastitis
• Galactocele
• Nipple pain, trauma, or dermatitis
• Breast engorgement
  • Etiology
    • Primary: initial swelling due to increased milk production postpartum (during the transition from colostrum to mature milk)
    • Secondary: insufficient removal of breast milk; (e.g., due to infrequent feeds, poor attachment, ineffective suckling, abrupt cessation of breastfeeding)
  • Clinical features: tenderness, firmness, and fullness of the breast
  • Management
    • Frequent breastfeeding with optimal nursing techniques
    • Warm compresses prior to breastfeeding; cold compresses between feeds
    • Analgesia
    • Careful expression of breast milk by hand or with a breast pump to alleviate pressure.
  • Complications: mastitis

Formula feeds ^[11][12][13]

• Supplementation with formula is only recommended if:
  • Neonate loses > 7% of birth weight during the first 10 days of life
  • Neonatal urine output is decreased
  • Neonatal stool output is decreased (< 3 small stools per day)
  • Maternal breast milk production is inadequate
  • Breastfeeding is contraindicated
• Lactose protein-based formulas should be fortified with iron to satisfy the infant's iron needs.

Supplementation

• Vitamin D supplementation ^[14]
  • Exclusively breastfed infants should receive 400 IU vitamin D supplementation daily. ^[15]
  • Supplementation can be stopped once the infant is started on vitamin D fortified cow milk (usually after 1 year of age).
  • Infants on vitamin D fortified formula feeds do not require further supplementation with vitamin D.
• Iron supplementation ^[16]
  • Is provided to premature infants (because of the lower iron stores and increased iron demands)
  • Should be used daily until 6 months of age, to avoid iron deficiency anemia
• Vitamin B₁₂ supplementation: if the mother has vitamin B₁₂ deficiency (e.g., due to vegetarian diet) ^[17]

Weaning ^[18][19]

• Solid foods should be slowly initiated in infants between 4–6 months of age, with continued breast/formula feeding.
• The recommended initial weaning food is rice cereal fortified with iron.
• One new food should be introduced per week to allow easy identification of food allergies.
• Pureed meat, green leafy vegetables, and dried beans are good sources of iron and zinc.
• Honey should not be given to infants because of the risk of botulism.
• Cow's milk can be introduced into the diet after 1 year of age.

Uterine complications

• Subinvolution of the uterus
  • Impaired retraction of the uterine muscles
  • Can cause severe bleeding
• Retained placenta
  • Placental remnants; that have not yet been expelled may lead to prolonged or periodic hemorrhage.
  • These remnants also lead to uterine subinvolution.
• Postpartum endometritis ^[20][21][22]
  • Definition: inflammation of the endometrium, possibly also including the myometrium and parametrium
  • Etiology: mostly polymicrobial (2–3 ascending organisms, e.g., Gardnerella vaginalis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, group B Streptococcus, and/or Ureaplasma urealyticum, all of which are usually found in the normal vaginal flora.)
  • Pathophysiology: lochia retention → ideal breeding ground for infection → postpartum endometritis/postpartum endomyometritis → postpartum sepsis
  • Risk factors
    • Cesarean delivery
    • Prolonged labor
    • Multiple cervical examinations
    • Retained products of conception after delivery, miscarriage, or abortion
    • Meconium in amniotic fluid
    • Low socioeconomic status
  • Clinical features
    • Fever
    • Lower abdominal pain, uterine tenderness
    • Chills, malaise
    • Foul-smelling lochia
  • Diagnostics: primarily clinical; in some cases, the following tests can be used to confirm the diagnosis:
    • Gram stain or wet mount of vaginal discharge
    • Blood and urine cultures
    • Histology: plasma cells in chronic endometritis
  • Treatment
    • Antibiotic treatment: IV clindamycin and gentamicin
      • Ampicillin-sulbactam is a reasonable alternative if resistance to clindamycin is a concern.
    • Uterine curettage to remove retained products of conception.
    • Hysterectomy in case of life-threatening complications or no response to conservative therapeutic measures.
  • Further complications
    • Surgical site infection
    • Peritonitis
    • Intra-abdominal abscess
• Postpartum hemorrhage

Thromboembolic complications

• Deep vein thrombosis
• Cerebral venous thrombosis
• Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis ^[23][24][25]
  • Definition: : a rare condition characterized by inflammation and thrombosis of the pelvic veins that most commonly occurs in the postpartum period
  • Risk factors
    • C-sections
    • Pelvic infections (e.g., endometritis, chorioamnionitis)
    • Abortion
  • Etiology
    • Pregnancy-induced hypercoagulability
    • Postpartum pelvic venous stasis
    • Endothelial damage due to an infection (e.g., endometritis) or bacteremia
  • Clinical features: Onset is usually within one week of delivery.
    • Patients are acutely unwell with fever and abdominal pain and tenderness on the side of the affected vein; a palpable cord may be present.
    • Approx. 90% of cases involve the right ovarian vein.
  • Diagnostics
    • Contrast CT or MRI: Visualization of dilation and thrombosis of the affected vein confirms the diagnosis.
      • Most commonly ovarian vein thrombosis
    • Blood culture: most commonly streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, and anaerobes
  • Treatment: antibiotics (e.g., clindamycin, gentamicin) and anticoagulation (e.g., LMWH or UFH)
  • Complications: Pulmonary emboli are rare.

Psychiatric complications

• Postpartum depression
• Postpartum psychosis

Other complications

• Urinary insufficiency
• Urinary retention
• Pelvic instability
  • Definition: a rare complication of the postpartum period leading to a loosening of the pelvic ring, causing pain when walking and severe tenderness of the symphysis; the patient has difficulty standing on one leg.
  • Diagnostics: may be confirmed with an ultrasound or pelvic x‑ray.
  • Treatment: analgesics and reduced physical activity for 1–2 weeks

The 7 Ws of postpartum fever: Womb (endometritis), Wind (pneumonia), Water (UTI), Walk (DVT, pulmonary embolism), Wound (incision, episiotomy), Weaning (breast abscess, mastitis), Wonder drugs (drug fever)

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