ambossIconambossIcon
Start free trialLog in

Tuberculosis

Last updated: April 30, 2025

Summarytoggle arrow icon

Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which typically affects the lungs. It is a common infectious cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Primary infection, transmitted via airborne aerosol droplet nuclei, is often initially asymptomatic. M. tuberculosis infection is typically dormant (latent TB infection; LTBI) because of intact innate and cellular immune responses. If the immune system is compromised, however, reactivation of the infection may occur and lead to active TB. Patients with active disease characteristically present with fever, weight loss, night sweats, and a productive cough (with or without hemoptysis) that does not respond to conventional antibiotic therapy. The infection may spread hematologically to any organ, causing extrapulmonary TB. However, disseminated disease is rare, occurring in severely immunocompromised individuals. If active TB infection is suspected, imaging should be obtained as well as microscopy, cultures, and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify M. tuberculosis. The treatment of tuberculosis is prolonged due to the slow growth of M. tuberculosis, its concealment in macrophages, and the inability of drugs to easily penetrate its cell wall. Standard treatment includes combination therapy with rifampin, isoniazid, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for two months, followed by rifampin and isoniazid for an additional four months. Patients with suspected LTBI should be tested using the purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin skin test (TST) or interferon-γ release assay (IGRA) and treated accordingly. Treatment of LTBI reduces the risk of active infection in up to 90% of cases and, therefore, plays a crucial role in the prevention of active TB.

Overviewtoggle arrow icon

Types of tuberculosis
Characteristics Primary tuberculosis (primary infection) Reactivation tuberculosis (secondary infection) [1]
Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) [2] Active primary tuberculosis [3]
Definition
Features
  • Asymptomatic
  • Not contagious
  • The risk of reactivation is 5–10% during the course of a lifetime. [4]
  • Can be symptomatic
  • Contagious
  • Progressive primary tuberculosis is a severe form of disease seen in individuals with impaired immune systems (e.g., HIV, malnutrition) or immature immune systems (e.g., young children). [1]
Diagnostics
Treatment

Epidemiologytoggle arrow icon

  • United States [13]
    • The incidence of TB infection in the US has been slowly declining.
    • The incidence rate for 2018 was 2.8 cases per 100,000 population.
    • Two-thirds of new TB cases reported in the US in 2019 were in individuals born outside the US.
    • The prevalence of LTBI in the United States is estimated to be 5% [14]
  • Worldwide [15]
    • A leading cause of death from a single infectious agent
    • The overall incidence and prevalence have been declining.
    • The incidence rate for 2018 was 132 cases per 100,000 population.
    • One-fourth of the world's population has latent TB.
    • The sex ratio varies across countries and communities and largely depends on social and cultural factors. [16]
    • Countries with the highest incidence of TB: India, Indonesia, China, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Pakistan, and South Africa
    • The incidence of multidrug-resistant TB is steadily rising.

Epidemiological data refers to the US, unless otherwise specified.

Etiologytoggle arrow icon

Mycobacteria

Species

Mycobacterium species that cause tuberculosis are collectively known as the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, which includes:

Features of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Risk factors for tuberculosis exposure [23]

Pathophysiologytoggle arrow icon

Primary tuberculosis [1][3][24]

Innate immune response

Cellular immune response

Secondary tuberculosis [24]

Clinical featurestoggle arrow icon

Latent tuberculosis infection does not typically manifest with symptoms. Patients with primary TB are commonly asymptomatic.

Pulmonary tuberculosis [1]

Depending on the degree of immunosuppression, TB in HIV-positive individuals may progress atypically or more rapidly.

Always consider TB as a differential diagnosis in a young individual with hemoptysis and if treatment for other pulmonary conditions (e.g., pneumonia) does not improve symptoms.

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis

See “Extrapulmonary tuberculosis” for respective clinical features.

Diagnosistoggle arrow icon

This section reviews the diagnosis of active tuberculosis infection. For screening and diagnosis of latent TB, see the section “Latent tuberculosis.”

Approach [7]

Lung cancer is an important differential diagnosis of pulmonary TB. Start investigations for malignancy in any patient with systemic symptoms (e.g., weight loss, persistent fevers, anorexia) and abnormal imaging.

PPD TST and IGRA are screening tests for latent TB and do not aid in the diagnostics of active TB. [7]

Laboratory studies [1]

Laboratory findings are mostly unspecific but can provide important information during initial diagnostic stages. Possible findings include:

Microbiological studies [7]

Confirmation of the presence of tuberculosis bacilli in different samples is done by direct visualization, positive culture, or by detecting genetic material. Samples used for testing include: [7]

Because sputum induction carries a high risk of transmission to health care workers, the procedure must be performed under strict infection control precautions. [36]

Microbiological tests for active TB [7][37]
Test Description Advantages Disadvantages
Acid-fast bacilli smear microscopy
  • Rapid detection
  • Inexpensive
Nucleic acid amplification test
  • For initial testing (along with AFB smear microscopy and culture) if clinical suspicion is high
  • Used for confirmation of AFB positive smears [7]
  • Requires laboratory equipment and trained staff, which may make use in resource-limited settings more difficult
  • Both viable and nonviable mycobacteria are detectable. [36]
Culture
  • High sensitivity [37]
  • Species identification
  • Identification of drug resistance
  • Takes 2 to 6 weeks for positive cultures to develop [37]
  • Delays the initiation of treatment, especially drug-resistant TB

Request AFB and cultures of every sample obtained; request NAAT for the initial respiratory sample along with microscopy and culture if clinical suspicion is high. [7]

Drug susceptibility testing [7]

  • Standard culture: used to assess for drug susceptibility in most patients; results are available after several weeks.
  • Rapid molecular testing : for select patients at high risk of resistant tuberculosis [7]

A negative AFB smear microscopy result does not rule out pulmonary TB and a confirmatory culture should be obtained. [7]

Imaging [7][8][40]

  • Indications: often performed as part of the diagnostic workup of patients with respiratory symptoms
  • Modalities: x-ray or CT chest
  • Findings
    • Highly variable and nonspecific, but can help narrow the differential diagnosis
    • In primary TB, chest x-ray is often normal.
Chest imaging findings in active TB [32][40]
Primary TB (middle/lower lobes) Postprimary (reactivation) TB
Chest x-ray
  • Consolidation (patchy or confluent)
  • Fibrocaseous cavitary lesions in upper lobes
  • Calcifications

CT chest

Extensive cavitation can lead to areas of bronchiectasis and damaged lung areas can be colonized with Aspergillus spp., leading to aspergillomas, sometimes referred to as fungus balls. [32]

Normal imaging does not rule out TB. Although radiographic changes are common in immunocompetent patients, individuals who are immunocompromised can have normal imaging findings. [8][31][40]

HIV and TB coinfection

Diagnosing TB in patients with HIV coinfection is challenging because these individuals often have a negative AFB smear and commonly have atypical imaging findings resulting from paucibacillary disease due to a reduced immune response. Different measures can be used to increase diagnostic sensitivity. [31][36]

  • Advanced testing in patients with HIV (not widely available) [36]
  • In resource-limited settings: a lower threshold for defining smear positivity and consideration of empiric treatment may be necessary [36]

In patients with HIV, the sensitivity of routine initial microbiological studies may be low; additional investigations may be required.

Obtain HIV tests in all patients with suspected (rather than confirmed) TB, as this can help to interpret test results. [36]

Differential diagnosestoggle arrow icon

Treatmenttoggle arrow icon

This section reviews the treatment of active tuberculosis. For the treatment of latent TB, see the section “Latent tuberculosis.”

General principles [1][9]

  • Goals
    • Reduction of disease severity and risk of transmission
    • Eradication of all bacilli to achieve sustained cure without relapse following completion of treatment
    • Prevention of drug resistance during therapy
  • Infection control measures
  • Antituberculosis therapy
    • All patients should undergo a pretreatment evaluation.
    • Choice of pharmacologic therapy is based on the site of infection and drug susceptibility.

Indications for treatment [9]

  • Confirmed active TB
  • Suspected active TB: Consider empiric treatment in all patients pending test results.
    • Factors favoring empiric treatment: high risk of disease progression and/or dissemination , imaging consistent with active TB, positive screening , critically ill patients, high transmission risk
    • Factors favoring delayed therapy: no known TB exposure, high risk of therapy side effects, negative NAAT (with positive or negative AFB smear microscopy)

Empiric treatment with standard antituberculosis therapy is indicated in most cases in which active infection is suspected. [9]

Pretreatment evaluation [9]

Antituberculosis therapy

Consultation with infectious disease experts is advised.

RIPE TB regimen [9][46]

RIPE TB regimen consists of 6 months of rifampin and isoniazid plus pyrazinamide and ethambutol during the first 2 months.

"RIPE": Rifampin, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol

The long duration of treatment for active TB requires patient-centered coordination with primary care and specialist services and directly observed therapy (DOT) to ensure adherence. [47]

4-month regimen for TB [46][48][49]

This regimen may be considered for patients with drug-susceptible pulmonary TB who are age ≥ 12 years, ≥ 40 kg, and without contraindications (e.g., drug-drug interactions, prolonged QT syndrome, pregnancy).

Treatment of drug-resistant TB disease [10][49]

This includes MDR-TB and XDR-TB. Consultation with infectious disease experts is required.

An all-oral regimen (i.e., bedaquilline, pretomanid, and linezolid ± moxifloxacin) may be considered for drug-resistant TB based on drug susceptibility. [49]

Treatment of extrapulmonary TB [9]

Choose antimicrobials under specialist guidance and tailor choice and duration of therapy to the infection site, severity, and response.

Consultation with a specialist is always advised in all patients with extrapulmonary TB, especially for miliary disease.

Side effects of antituberculosis agents [9]

Mild side effects can usually be managed with symptomatic treatment, while more severe side effects (e.g., significant hepatotoxicity, optic neuritis) usually require one or more drugs to be discontinued and replaced in consultation with a specialist.

Specific side effects of antituberculosis drugs [9]

Isoniazid
Rifampin
Pyrazinamide
Ethambutol

Rifampin and isoniazid alter the efficacy of drugs metabolized by cytochrome P450 (especially protease inhibitors, NNRTIs, OCPs, warfarin, sulfonylureas).

Monitoring [9][44]

Monthly follow-ups are recommended in all patients receiving antituberculosis treatment for active TB or LTBI.

Advise patients to self-monitor for features that suggest hepatitis (e.g., jaundice, fatigue, anorexia, abdominal pain) and seek prompt medical attention if any of them arise. [44]

Latent tuberculosis infectiontoggle arrow icon

Description

M. tuberculosis remains dormant within the host and may be reactivated once the immune system becomes compromised (e.g., by high doses of glucocorticoids or chemotherapeutic agents, HIV infection).

Epidemiology [14]

  • The prevalence of LTBI in the United States is estimated to be 5%.
  • 5–10% of untreated cases progress to active TB if left untreated.

Diagnosis [7][44]

Screening for LTBI [7][57][58]

The decision of whether to test an individual should be carefully considered based on the likelihood of someone having LTBI, the likelihood of progression of LTBI to active TB, and the potential benefit of therapy.

All patients with HIV should be screened for LTBI, regardless of additional risk factors. [44]

All individuals due to start immunosuppressive therapy should be screened for LTBI. [59]

Selection of screening test [7]

Screening tests for LTBI [7]
Purified protein derivative tuberculin skin test (Mantoux test) [66] Interferon-γ release assay (IGRA) [67]
Mechanism
Procedure
  • Step 1: 0.1 mL (or 5 units) of purified protein derivative (PPD) injected intradermally on the volar surface of the forearm resulting in wheal formation
  • Step 2: transverse diameter of palpable induration checked 48–72 hours later
  • QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT) assay: Whole blood is drawn into three test tubes in the following order: [68]
    1. Negative control tube
    2. TB antigen test tube
    3. Positive control tube containing mitogen
  • T-SPOT.TB assay: One sample of whole blood is required. [67]
Benefits
  • Inexpensive
  • Preferred test in children < 5 years of age [7]
  • Only requires a single office visit
  • Preferred test in individuals with prior BCG vaccination
  • Results are available within 24 hours. [44]
Limitations
  • No differentiation between active and latent TB
  • Expensive [44]
  • Errors in collecting and transporting blood can decrease accuracy. [14]

Interpretation of results [7][44]

Positive PPD TST according to induration diameter [44]
≥ 5 mm
  • Individuals exposed to AFB smear-positive case
  • Individuals with HIV
  • Individuals with clinical or radiographic evidence of active or prior TB
  • Individuals with organ transplants or receiving immunosuppressive therapy
≥ 10 mm
  • Individuals who have moved within the last 5 years from a country with a high TB burden (> 20 cases per 100,000 population) [7]
  • Individuals living or working in high-risk settings (e.g., homeless shelters, prisons)
  • Individuals who inject drugs
  • Mycobacteriology laboratory workers
  • Individuals with illnesses such as diabetes and CKD
  • Children < 5 years of age
  • Children who have had contact with adults in high-risk categories
  • Individuals with low BMI
≥ 15 mm
  • All otherwise healthy individuals with no known risk factors [72]

The diagnosis of LTBI is based on a positive screening result in patients with a medical history and physical examination consistent with latent disease, once active TB has been excluded. [14]

If screening for LTBI is positive, it is still necessary to exclude active TB prior to starting treatment for LTBI because neither screening test can differentiate between active and latent infection. [14]

Further evaluation

Management of individuals screened for TB [73]
Initial management Further management
Positive IGRA or TST
  • Chest x-ray to exclude active TB
  • Individuals with low risk: Diagnosis can be confirmed with dual testing using the same or a different testing method. [74]
IGRA or TST negative If < 8–10 weeks since exposure
  • Immunocompetent individuals and children ≥ 5 years of age: no treatment; repeat screening test 8–10 weeks following exposure.
  • Immunocompromised individuals and children < 5 years of age: Start treatment for LTBI until TST or IGRA is repeated 8–10 weeks following exposure.
If > 8–10 weeks since exposure
  • No further evaluation is required.

If health care workers are exposed to an individual with active TB without adequate personal protective equipment, IGRA or PPD TST must be performed immediately and repeated after 8–10 weeks if the initial test is negative. [75]

Special situations [44]

  • HIV infection: Screen for LTBI at the time of diagnosis and repeat annually in patients at risk of exposure.
  • BCG vaccination: IGRA is preferred to PPD TST. [69]
  • Screening prior to starting immunosuppressive therapy: Follow the usual screening algorithm, but consider a second test if the initial screening test is negative. [76]
  • Individuals who are periodically tested with PPD TST
    • TST results may be affected by booster phenomenon
    • Consider two-step TST in select cases to avoid misinterpretation; two-step testing is not required if IGRA is used as a baseline test.
      • Method: initial baseline TST and a second TST 1–3 weeks later
      • Interpretation: Repeat TST is considered positive if TST conversion occurs. [77]
        • Negative repeat TST: LTBI is unlikely and no further management is required.
        • Positive repeat TST: A boosted reaction has occurred and LTBI is likely and requires further management.

Treatment

The primary goal of the treatment of latent TB is to prevent reactivation to active TB.

Pretreatment considerations [44]

  • Medical and drug history
  • Baseline liver chemistries (for all individuals at risk of liver injury)
  • Exclusion of active TB: Patients should have no clinical or radiological evidence of TB.
  • Case notification: Reporting to the local health department is advised and may be mandatory in some locations.
  • Infection control: Airborne precautions are not required once active pulmonary TB has been excluded. [78]
  • Patient education: Provide information about treatment and its side effects, methods available to support adherence to therapy, and instructions to seek medical attention if side effects occur.

Pharmacotherapy of LTBI [44]

  • Pharmacological therapy: indicated for patients with positive IGRA or PPD TST after active TB has been excluded
  • Rifamycin-based short regimens are preferred.
  • Long regimens may be considered based on drug tolerance, pharmacological interactions, and HIV status.
Drug regimens for treatment of LTBI [44]
Detailed regimen Indications
Short regimens
  • Most patients > 2 years of age
  • Select patients with HIV/AIDS
  • Once-daily rifampin for 4 months (abbreviation: 4R) [44]
  • HIV-negative patients of any age who:
    • Are unable to tolerate INH
    • OR have been exposed to INH-resistant TB
Long regimens
  • Most patients with HIV
  • Patients of any age with contraindications for rifamycins [79]

Rifampin and rifapentine are not interchangeable and clinicians and pharmacists should be careful to prescribe and administer the correct drug.

Extrapulmonary tuberculosistoggle arrow icon

This section provides an overview of the most common types of extrapulmonary tuberculosis.

Tuberculous lymphadenitis [80]

Tuberculous hilar lymphadenopathy [1][82]

Tuberculous pleurisy [83]

Miliary tuberculosis [85]

Tuberculous meningoencephalitis

Pericardial tuberculosis [93][94]

Adrenal tuberculosis [95]

Rifampin can precipitate an acute adrenal crisis in patients with undetected adrenal insufficiency due to tuberculosis.

Cutaneous tuberculosis [85][96]

  • Classification: based on pathogenesis, morphology of the lesion, and histopathological features
Types of cutaneous TB
Type Pathophysiology Clinical features Histopathology features
Exogenous source of TB
Primary inoculation TB (tuberculous chancre)
Postprimary inoculation TB (tuberculosis verrucosa cutis)
Endogenous source of TB
Scrofuloderma
  • Firm nodule or swelling that ulcerates to form a discharging sinus tract
Autoinoculation
Hematogenous source of TB
Lupus vulgaris
  • Individuals previously sensitized to TB with a high degree of sensitivity
  • Nonspecific features
Tuberculosis miliaris cutis disseminata
  • Site: trunk, thighs, buttocks, genitalia
  • Widespread papules and crusted vesicles
Tuberculous gumma (metastatic tuberculous abscess)
  • Multiple skin nodules that may ulcerate to form discharging sinus tract
Tuberculid
Variable forms
  • Unknown

Gastrointestinal tuberculosis [97][98]

  • Pathophysiology
    • Ingestion of infected milk or sputum
    • Hematogenous spread resulting from primary pulmonary TB
    • Contiguous spread via affected lymph nodes
  • Sites of involvement: See “Types of gastrointestinal TB” below.
Types of gastrointestinal TB
Site of involvement Clinical features Diagnostics Differential diagnosis
Peritoneum
Esophagus
Stomach

Jejunum and ileocecal region
Colorectal
  • Abdominal pain
  • Weight loss
  • Loss of appetite
  • Altered bowel habits

Urogenital tuberculosis [85][99]

Renal and urologic TB

Male genital tract TB

Female genital tract TB [100]

Pott disease [85]

Pathologytoggle arrow icon

Gross pathology [3]

Histopathology [3]

Caseating tuberculous granulomas are a characteristic finding of tuberculosis, most commonly reactivation (secondary) tuberculosis.

Caseating granulomas are strongly associated with tuberculosis but can also occur in infections such as histoplasmosis or those caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria like Mycobacterium avium.

Histopathology of other types of tuberculosis

  • Acinar nodular tuberculosis: merging of multiple epithelioid granulomas into macroscopically visible areas of necrosis
  • Miliary tuberculosis: numerous, small, nodular foci with or without central necrosis
  • Urogenital tuberculosis [101]
    • Step-like progression with an initial singular focus of tuberculosis
    • Gradually increasing destruction of the renal calyces
    • During the end stage, the kidney appears to have homogeneous, sac-like collections of calcified caseous material on plain abdominal x-ray (known as “putty kidney").

Complicationstoggle arrow icon

We list the most important complications. The selection is not exhaustive.

Preventiontoggle arrow icon

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccine (BCG) [102]

The BCG vaccine is not widely used in the US and is only given to very select people in consultation with a TB expert. [106]

Disinfectants active against M. tuberculosis [107]

Contact tracing and postexposure management [73]

Contact tracing is standard practice in resource-rich countries. Contact tracing and treatment are usually prioritized in cases involving patients with highly infectious TB, vulnerable contacts, or high-risk exposures. [73][108]

  • Exposure risk assessment
    • Factors that increase contagiousness of the index case
      • Pulmonary or laryngeal TB
      • Positive sputum smear microscopy
      • Cavitary lesions on chest x-ray
      • Untreated or inadequately treated TB
    • Factors that increase contacts' vulnerability to infection
    • Type of exposure: intensity, frequency, duration of exposure
  • Management of contacts

Offer HIV testing to all contacts if HIV status is unknown. [73]

Contact tracing is recommended if the index case has pulmonary or laryngeal TB or has a positive AFB smear. [73]

Postexposure management in health care settings [75]

  • All US health care workers are screened for LTBI at the beginning of their employment.
  • Health care workers with previous documented LTBI or active TB do not need a screening test after exposure and should be evaluated if features of active TB develop.

Special patient groupstoggle arrow icon

Management of TB in pregnant individuals [9][44][109]

General [44][109]

Latent TB [44][109]

  • Active TB must to be ruled out by symptom review and chest x-ray before initiating treatment for LTBI.
  • Treatment can be delayed until 2–3 months postpartum for women who are not at increased risk of developing active TB.
  • Treatment should not be delayed in patients at high risk of developing active TB.
Drug regimens for treatment of LTBI in pregnant women [44]
Detailed regimen
Short regimens
  • Rifampin once daily for 4 months (abbreviation: 4R)
Long regimens
  • Isoniazid once daily for 6 months (abbreviation: 6H) or 9 months (abbreviation: 9H) PLUS pyridoxine

The 3HP regimen (once-weekly isoniazid and once-weekly rifapentine) is not recommended for pregnant women or women planning to become pregnant during the treatment period due to lack of data on safety during pregnancy. [44]

Active TB [9][109]

Standard first-line therapy for pregnant patients consists of 9 months with isoniazid and rifampin plus ethambutol during the first 2 months.

Streptomycin, kanamycin, amikacin, capreomycin, and fluoroquinolones are contraindicated during pregnancy.

Management during the postpartum period [9][109][110]

  • Isolation: Mothers do not need to isolate themselves from their babies after birth but should wear a surgical mask.
  • Breastfeeding recommendations
    • Breastfeeding should be encouraged in women receiving treatment with standard first-line agents.
    • Mothers should be informed that rifampin can cause harmless orange discoloration of breastmilk.
    • Exclusively breastfed infants should also receive prophylactic pyridoxine if the mother is taking isoniazid.

Complications of TB during pregnancy [110]

Related One-Minute Telegramtoggle arrow icon

Interested in the newest medical research, distilled down to just one minute? Sign up for the One-Minute Telegram in “Tips and links” below.

Referencestoggle arrow icon

  1. Fact Sheet: Trends in Tuberculosis, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20200924154439/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm. Updated: October 29, 2019. Accessed: September 17, 2020.
  2. Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, et al. Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Adults. JAMA. 2016; 316 (9): p.962.doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.11046 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  3. $Global Tuberculosis Report 2019.
  4. Mason PH, Snow K, et al. Tuberculosis and gender in the Asia-Pacific region. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2017; 41 (3): p.227-229.doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12619 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  5. Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Loscalzo J. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twentieth Edition (Vol.1 & Vol.2). McGraw-Hill Education / Medical ; 2018
  6. Hinson JM Jr, Bradsher RW, Bodner SJ. Gram-stain neutrality of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1981; 123 (4 Pt 1): p.365-366.doi: 10.1164/arrd.1981.123.4.365 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  7. Meena LS, Rajni. Survival mechanisms of pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv. FEBS J. 2010; 277 (11): p.2416-2427.doi: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2010.07666.x . | Open in Read by QxMD
  8. Willey JM, Sherwood L, Woolverton CJ. Prescott's Principles of Microbiology. McGraw-Hill ; 2008
  9. Annam V, Kulkarni MH, et al. Comparison of the modified fluorescent method and conventional Ziehl–Neelsen method in the detection of acidfast bacilli in lymphnode aspirates. Cytojournal. 2009; 6 (13).doi: 10.4103/1742-6413.53887 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  10. Martinez L, Verma R, Croda J, et al. Detection, survival and infectious potential of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the environment: a review of the evidence and epidemiological implications. European Respiratory Journal. 2019; 53 (6): p.1802302.doi: 10.1183/13993003.02302-2018 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  11. Vandal OH, Nathan CF, et al. Acid Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Bacteriol. 2009; 191 (15): p.4714-21.doi: 10.1128/jb.00305-09 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  12. Kumar, Clark. Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine, 9th edition. Elsevier ; 2016
  13. WHO - Latent TB Infection : Updated and consolidated guidelines for programmatic management 2018. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/260233. Updated: January 1, 2018. Accessed: September 21, 2020.
  14. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC. Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. Elsevier Saunders ; 2014
  15. Ahmad S. Pathogenesis, Immunology, and Diagnosis of LatentMycobacterium tuberculosisInfection. Clinical and Developmental Immunology. 2010; 2011: p.1-17.doi: 10.1155/2011/814943 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  16. Kinchen JM, Ravichandran KS. Phagosome maturation: going through the acid test. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2008; 9 (10): p.781-795.doi: 10.1038/nrm2515 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  17. Malik ZA, Iyer SS, Kusner DJ. Mycobacterium tuberculosisPhagosomes Exhibit Altered Calmodulin-Dependent Signal Transduction: Contribution to Inhibition of Phagosome-Lysosome Fusion and Intracellular Survival in Human Macrophages. The Journal of Immunology. 2001; 166 (5): p.3392-3401.doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.5.3392 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  18. Lang R. Recognition of the mycobacterial cord factor by Mincle: relevance for granuloma formation and resistance to tuberculosis. Frontiers in Immunology. 2013; 4.doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00005 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  19. Engele M, Stöβel E, et al. Induction of TNF in Human Alveolar Macrophages As a Potential Evasion Mechanism of Virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The Journal of Immunology. 2002; 168 (3): p.1328-1337.doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.3.1328 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  20. Goren MB. Phagocyte Lysosomes: Interactions with Infectious Agents, Phagosomes, and Experimental Perturbations in Function. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1977; 31 (1): p.507-533.doi: 10.1146/annurev.mi.31.100177.002451 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  21. Luies L, du Preez I. The Echo of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Mechanisms of Clinical Symptoms and Other Disease-Induced Systemic Complications. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020; 33 (4): p.1-19.doi: 10.1128/cmr.00036-20 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  22. Lewinsohn DM, Leonard MK, LoBue PA, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017; 64 (2): p.e1-e33.doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw694 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  23. $Diagnostic Standards and Classification of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children.
  24. Lyon SM, Rossman MD. Pulmonary Tuberculosis.. Microbiol Spectr. 2017; 5 (1).doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0032-2016 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  25. The Core Curriculum on Tuberculosis: What the Clinician Should Know. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/education/corecurr/. Updated: January 1, 2021. Accessed: June 21, 2021.
  26. Weiszhar Z, Horvath I. Induced sputum analysis: step by step. Breathe. 2013; 9 (4): p.300-306.doi: 10.1183/20734735.042912 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  27. Ruiz Jiménez M, Guillén Martín S, Prieto Tato LM, et al. Induced sputum versus gastric lavage for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in children. BMC Infect Dis. 2013; 13: p.222.doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-222 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  28. Mendelson M. Diagnosing tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: challenges and future prospects. Br Med Bull. 2007; 81-82 (1): p.149-165.doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldm009 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  29. Cudahy P, Shenoi SV. Diagnostics for pulmonary tuberculosis. Postgrad Med J. 2016; 92 (1086): p.187-193.doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2015-133278 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  30. Lee JS, Kim E-C, Joo SI, et al. The Incidence and Clinical Implication of Sputum with Positive Acid-Fast Bacilli Smear But Negative in Mycobacterial Culture in a Tertiary Referral Hospital in South Korea. J Korean Med Sci. 2008; 23 (5): p.767.doi: 10.3346/jkms.2008.23.5.767 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  31. Mycobacteriology Laboratory Manual. http://www.stoptb.org/wg/gli/assets/documents/gli_mycobacteriology_lab_manual_web.pdf. Updated: April 1, 2014. Accessed: June 17, 2021.
  32. Bomanji JB, Gupta N, Gulati P, Das CJ. Imaging in tuberculosis.. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2015; 5 (6).doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a017814 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  33. Nachiappan AC, Rahbar K, et al. Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Role of Radiology in Diagnosis and Management. RadioGraphics. 2017; 37 (1): p.52-72.doi: 10.1148/rg.2017160032 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  34. The use of lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay (LF-LAM) for the diagnosis and screening of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV Policy update. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/193633. Updated: January 1, 2015. Accessed: November 17, 2020.
  35. Bjerrum S, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019.doi: 10.1002/14651858.cd011420.pub3 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  36. Griesel R, Stewart A, van der Plas H, et al. Optimizing Tuberculosis Diagnosis in Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected Inpatients Meeting the Criteria of Seriously Ill in the World Health Organization Algorithm. Clin Infect Dis. 2017; 66 (9): p.1419-1426.doi: 10.1093/cid/cix988 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  37. Merchant S, Bharati A, et al. Tuberculosis of the genitourinary system-Urinary tract tuberculosis: Renal tuberculosis-Part I. Indian Journal of Radiology and Imaging. 2013; 23 (1): p.46-63.doi: 10.4103/0971-3026.113615 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  38. Nahid P, Dorman SE, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2016; 63 (7): p.e147-e195.doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw376 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  39. Latent Tuberculosis Infection: A Guide for Primary Health Care Providers. https://web.archive.org/web/20201127184559/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/ltbi/default.htm. Updated: January 1, 2020. Accessed: November 13, 2020.
  40. CDC. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005.. MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports. 2005; 54 (RR-17): p.1-141.
  41. Treatment for TB Disease. https://web.archive.org/web/20240113172245/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/treatment/tbdisease.htm. Updated: March 22, 2023. Accessed: January 22, 2024.
  42. Winkelman JW. Insomnia Disorder. N Engl J Med. 2015; 373 (15): p.1437-1444.doi: 10.1056/nejmcp1412740 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  43. Carr W, Kurbatova E, Starks A, Goswami N, Allen L, Winston C. Interim Guidance: 4-Month Rifapentine-Moxifloxacin Regimen for the Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Pulmonary Tuberculosis — United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022; 71 (8): p.285-289.doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7108a1 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  44. Saukkonen JJ, Duarte R, Munsiff SS, et al. Updates on the Treatment of Drug-Susceptible and Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: An Official ATS/CDC/ERS/IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2025; 211 (1): p.15-33.doi: 10.1164/rccm.202410-2096st . | Open in Read by QxMD
  45. Nahid P, Mase SR, Migliori GB, et al. Treatment of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. An Official ATS/CDC/ERS/IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019; 200 (10): p.e93-e142.doi: 10.1164/rccm.201909-1874st . | Open in Read by QxMD
  46. Provisional CDC Guidance for the Use of Pretomanid as part of a Regimen [Bedaquiline, Pretomanid, and Linezolid (BPaL)] to Treat Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis Disease. https://web.archive.org/web/20240309010917/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/drtb/bpal/default.htm#BPaL-Regimen. Updated: November 21, 2023. Accessed: January 19, 2024.
  47. Piso RJ, Kriz K, Desax M-C. Severe isoniazid related sideroblastic anemia. Hematol Rep. 2011; 3 (1): p.2.doi: 10.4081/hr.2011.e2 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  48. Sivakumar V, Sriramnaveen P, Sridhar A, Sandeep Y, Krishnakishore C, Manjusha Y. Fatal poisoning by isoniazid and rifampicin. Indian J Nephrol. 2012; 22 (5): p.385.doi: 10.4103/0971-4065.103930 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  49. Navalkele B, Bueno Rios MX, Wofford JD, Kumar V, Webb RM. Seizures in an Immunocompetent Adult From Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: Is Isoniazid to Blame?. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020; 7 (5).doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa144 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  50. Garg N, Mutreja R. Bilateral dentate hyperintensities: Isoniazid induced toxicity. EURORAD. 2016.doi: 10.1594/EURORAD/CASE.13907 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  51. Kipsang JK, Choge JK, Marinda PA, Khayeka-Wandabwa C. Pellagra in isoniazid preventive and antiretroviral therapy. IDCases. 2019; 17: p.e00550.doi: 10.1016/j.idcr.2019.e00550 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  52. Ben Salem C, Slim R, et al. Drug-induced hyperuricaemia and gout. Rheumatology. 2016; 56 (5): p.679-688.doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kew293 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  53. The role of BCG vaccine in the prevention and control of tuberculosis in the United States. A joint statement by the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8602127. Updated: April 26, 1996. Accessed: November 15, 2020.
  54. Summary of the WHO Position Paper on BCG vaccines: WHO position paper – February 2018. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/immunization/position_paper_documents/tuberculosis-(bcg)/pp-bcg-summary-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=4ed8c19a_2. Updated: February 1, 2018. Accessed: October 15, 2024.
  55. WHO. Implementing the WHO Stop TB Strategy. World Health Organization ; 2008
  56. Mangtani P, Abubakar I, et al. Protection by BCG Vaccine Against Tuberculosis: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2014; 58 (4): p.470-480.doi: 10.1093/cid/cit790 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  57. Basic TB Facts: Vaccines. https://web.archive.org/web/20210619130743/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/basics/vaccines.htm. Updated: March 16, 2016. Accessed: June 24, 2021.
  58. Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities (2008). https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/chemical.html#Chlorine. Updated: January 1, 2008. Accessed: November 15, 2020.
  59. National Tuberculosis Controllers Association, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).. Guidelines for the investigation of contacts of persons with infectious tuberculosis. Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC.. MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports. 2005; 54 (RR-15): p.1-47.
  60. Fox GJ, Barry SE, Britton WJ, Marks GB. Contact investigation for tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2012; 41 (1): p.140-156.doi: 10.1183/09031936.00070812 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  61. Sosa LE, Njie GJ, et al. Tuberculosis Screening, Testing, and Treatment of U.S. Health Care Personnel: Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019; 68 (19): p.439-443.doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6819a3 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  62. Fact Sheets: The Difference Between Latent TB Infection and TB Disease. https://web.archive.org/web/20170520235336/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/general/ltbiandactivetb.htm. Updated: November 21, 2014. Accessed: March 25, 2017.
  63. Geng E, Kreiswirth B, Burzynski J, Schluger NW. Clinical and Radiographic Correlates of Primary and Reactivation Tuberculosis. JAMA. 2005; 293 (22): p.2740.doi: 10.1001/jama.293.22.2740 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  64. Flynn, Chan. Tuberculosis: Latency and Reactivation. Infection and Immunity. 2001.doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.7.4195-4201.2001 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  65. WHO - TB drug resistance types. https://www.who.int/tb/areas-of-work/drug-resistant-tb/types/en/. . Accessed: September 21, 2020.
  66. Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR TB) Fact Sheet. https://web.archive.org/web/20240119141748/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/drtb/xdrtb.htm. Updated: May 4, 2016. Accessed: January 22, 2024.
  67. Mangione CM, Barry MJ, et al. Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Adults. JAMA. 2023; 329 (17): p.1487.doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.4899 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  68. Global Tuberculosis Programme. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis. Module 2. World Health Organization ; 2021
  69. Hasan T, Au E, Chen S, Tong A, Wong G. Screening and prevention for latent tuberculosis in immunosuppressed patients at risk for tuberculosis: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines. BMJ Open. 2018; 8 (9): p.e022445.doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022445 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  70. $Targeted Tuberculin Testing and Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection.
  71. Jick SS, Lieberman ES, et al. Glucocorticoid use, other associated factors, and the risk of tuberculosis. Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2006; 55 (1): p.19-26.doi: 10.1002/art.21705 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  72. Koo S, Marty FM, Baden LR. Infectious Complications Associated with Immunomodulating Biologic Agents. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2010; 24 (2): p.285-306.doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2010.01.006 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  73. Arcavi L, Benowitz NL. Cigarette Smoking and Infection. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164 (20): p.2206-2216.doi: 10.1001/archinte.164.20.2206 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  74. Szabo G. Alcohol's contribution to compromised immunity.. Alcohol Health Res World. 1997; 21 (1): p.30-41.
  75. Hochberg NS, Horsburgh CR. Prevention of Tuberculosis in Older Adults in the United States: Obstacles and Opportunities. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2013; 56 (9): p.1240-1247.doi: 10.1093/cid/cit027 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  76. Nayak S, Acharjya B. Mantoux test and its interpretation. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2012; 3 (1): p.2.doi: 10.4103/2229-5178.93479 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  77. Pai M, Denkinger CM, Kik SV, et al. Gamma Interferon Release Assays for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014; 27 (1): p.3-20.doi: 10.1128/cmr.00034-13 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  78. FAQs for Health Professionals QuantiFERON®-TB Gold 2016. https://www.quantiferon.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/PROM-10157_FAQs-Health-Professionals-Rev001v02.pdf. Updated: October 1, 2016. Accessed: June 18, 2021.
  79. Clinical Testing Guidance for Tuberculosis: Tuberculin Skin Test. https://web.archive.org/web/20240929082952/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/hcp/testing-diagnosis/tuberculin-skin-test.html. Updated: May 14, 2024. Accessed: October 15, 2024.
  80. Smith-Rohrberg D, Sharma SK. Tuberculin skin test among pulmonary sarcoidosis patients with and without tuberculosis: its utility for the screening of the two conditions in tuberculosis-endemic regions.. Sarcoidosis, vasculitis, and diffuse lung diseases : official journal of WASOG. 2006; 23 (2): p.130-4.
  81. Meier NR, Volken T, Geiger M, Heininger U, Tebruegge M, Ritz N. Risk Factors for Indeterminate Interferon-Gamma Release Assay for the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Children—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Pediatr. 2019; 7.doi: 10.3389/fped.2019.00208 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  82. Biesenbach P, Mårtensson J, Lucchetta L, et al. Pharmacokinetics of Magnesium Bolus Therapy in Cardiothoracic Surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2018; 32 (3): p.1289-1294.doi: 10.1053/j.jvca.2017.08.049 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  83. Testing and Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in the United States: Clinical Recommendations. https://www.tbcontrollers.org/docs/resources/tb-infection/LTBI_Clinical_Recommendations_Version_002052021.pdf. Updated: February 1, 2021. Accessed: December 21, 2022.
  84. Dobler CC. Biologic Agents and Tuberculosis. Microbiol Spectr. 2016; 4 (6).doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.tnmi7-0026-2016 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  85. Dobler CC, Farah WH, Alsawas M, et al. Tuberculin Skin Test Conversions and Occupational Exposure Risk in US Healthcare Workers. Clin Infect Dis. 2017; 66 (5): p.706-711.doi: 10.1093/cid/cix861 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  86. Coulter C, and the National Tuberculosis Advisory Committee .. Infection control guidelines for the management of patients with suspected or confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis in healthcare settings.. Commun Dis Intell Q Rep. 2016; 40 (3): p.E360-E366.
  87. Sterling TR, Njie G, et al. Guidelines for the Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2020. MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 2020; 69 (1): p.1-11.doi: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6901a1 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  88. Fontanilla JM, Barnes A, et al. Current Diagnosis and Management of Peripheral Tuberculous Lymphadenitis. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2011; 53 (6): p.555-562.doi: 10.1093/cid/cir454 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  89. Mohapatra PR, Janmeja AK. Tuberculous lymphadenitis. J Assoc Physicians India. 2009; 57: p.585-90.
  90. Leung AN, Müller NL, et al. Primary tuberculosis in childhood: radiographic manifestations.. Radiology. 1992; 182 (1): p.87-91.doi: 10.1148/radiology.182.1.1727316 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  91. Udwadia ZF, Sen T. Pleural tuberculosis: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2010; 16 (4): p.399-406.doi: 10.1097/mcp.0b013e328339cf6e . | Open in Read by QxMD
  92. Sahn SA. The Value of Pleural Fluid Analysis. Am J Med Sci. 2008; 335 (1): p.7-15.doi: 10.1097/maj.0b013e31815d25e6 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  93. Schlossberg D. Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections Seventh Edition. ASM Press ; 2017
  94. Sharma SK, Mohan A, Sharma A. Miliary tuberculosis: A new look at an old foe. Journal of Clinical Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacterial Diseases. 2016; 3: p.13-27.doi: 10.1016/j.jctube.2016.03.003 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  95. Sharma et al.. Incidence, predictors and prognostic value of cranial nerve involvement in patients with tuberculous meningitis: A retrospective evaluation. European Journal of Internal Medicine. 2011.
  96. Thwaites G. Neurological aspects of tropical disease: Tuberculous meningitis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2000; 68 (3): p.289-299.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.68.3.289 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  97. Seehusen, et al. Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis. American Family Physician. 2003.
  98. Cho B-H, Kim BC, Yoon G-J, et al. Adenosine deaminase activity in cerebrospinal fluid and serum for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2013; 115 (9): p.1831-1836.doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2013.05.017 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  99. Ekermans P, Dusé A, George J. The dubious value of cerebrospinal fluid adenosine deaminase measurement for the diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2017; 17 (1).doi: 10.1186/s12879-017-2221-3 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  100. Guidelines for Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis and Patient Care. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/255052/9789241550000-eng.pdf;jsessionid=8C1829AA433952F2B1308E3FFCBA7734?sequence=1. Updated: June 1, 2017. Accessed: May 25, 2021.
  101. Mayosi BM, Burgess LJ, Doubell AF. Tuberculous Pericarditis. Circulation. 2005; 112 (23): p.3608-3616.doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.105.543066 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  102. Isiguzo G, Du Bruyn E, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Tuberculous Pericarditis: What Is New?. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2020; 22 (1): p.1-8.doi: 10.1007/s11886-020-1254-1 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  103. Kelestimur F. The endocrinology of adrenal tuberculosis: The effects of tuberculosis on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and adrenocortical function. J Endocrinol Invest. 2004; 27 (4): p.380-386.doi: 10.1007/bf03351067 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  104. VanZyl L, DuPlessis J, Viljoen J. Cutaneous tuberculosis overview and current treatment regimens. Tuberculosis. 2015; 95 (6): p.629-638.doi: 10.1016/j.tube.2014.12.006 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  105. Debi U, Ravisankar V, et al. Abdominal tuberculosis of the gastrointestinal tract: Revisited. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2014; 20 (40): p.14831-14840.doi: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i40.14831 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  106. Rasheed S, Zinicola R, et al. Intra-abdominal and gastrointestinal tuberculosis. Colorectal Disease. 2007; 9 (9): p.773-783.doi: 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2007.01337.x . | Open in Read by QxMD
  107. Abbara A, Davidson RN. Etiology and management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Nature Reviews Urology. 2011; 8 (12): p.678-688.doi: 10.1038/nrurol.2011.172 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  108. Gatongi DK, Gitau G, et al. Female genital tuberculosis. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist. 2005; 7 (2): p.75-79.doi: 10.1576/toag.7.2.075.27000 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  109. TB and Pregnancy. https://web.archive.org/web/20220922031910/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/populations/pregnancy/default.htm. . Accessed: August 22, 2022.
  110. World Health Organization. WHO operational handbook on tuberculosis. Module 5: management of tuberculosis in children and adolescents. World Health Organization ; 2022
  111. Gupta A, Bhosale R, Kinikar A, et al. Maternal Tuberculosis: A Risk Factor for Mother-to-Child Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. J Infect Dis. 2011; 203 (3): p.358-362.doi: 10.1093/jinfdis/jiq064 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  112. Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Hauser S, Longo D, Jameson LJ, Loscalzo J . Harrisons Principles of Internal Medicine . McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division ; 2016
  113. Klein K, Yang Z. Comparison of ambient air survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical strains associated with different epidemiological phenotypes. Int J Mycobacteriol. 2014; 3 (3): p.211-213.doi: 10.1016/j.ijmyco.2014.04.002 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  114. Questions and Answers About TB: Testing and Treatment. https://web.archive.org/web/20170602094218/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/faqs/qa_latenttbinf.htm. Updated: September 18, 2014. Accessed: March 28, 2017.
  115. $Tuberculosis.
  116. Tuberculosis in Women. https://www.who.int/tb/publications/tb_women_factsheet.pdf?ua=1. . Accessed: February 24, 2019.
  117. Fact Sheet: Trends in Tuberculosis, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20190331065225/https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm. Updated: October 15, 2017. Accessed: March 27, 2019.
  118. $Global Tuberculosis Report 2018.
  119. Skoura E, Zumla A, Bomanji J. Imaging in tuberculosis. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2015; 32: p.87-93.doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2014.12.007 . | Open in Read by QxMD
Sign up and get unlimited access.
Start free trial
disclaimer Evidence-based content, created and peer-reviewed by physicians. Read the disclaimer