ambossIconambossIcon

Hyponatremia

Last updated: April 16, 2025

Summarytoggle arrow icon

Hyponatremia is defined as a serum sodium concentration below 135 mEq/L. Hyponatremia is typically caused by fluid imbalance; common causes are categorized as hypovolemic (e.g., dehydration), euvolemic (e.g., primary polydipsia, SIADH), or hypervolemic (e.g., CHF). Onset can be acute or chronic, and symptoms are predominantly neurological and often nonspecific (e.g., nausea, headache, confusion). The cause of hyponatremia is determined by assessing the patient's volume status and ability to retain sodium. Conditions with very high protein (e.g., multiple myeloma) or glucose levels (e.g., DKA) in the blood can cause falsely low serum sodium levels (pseudohyponatremia). Treatment involves careful correction of the sodium deficit and/or fluid imbalance. A rapid increase in the serum sodium concentration can have damaging osmotic effects (i.e., osmotic demyelination syndrome).

See the section “Core IM podcast 5 pearls on hyponatremia (episode 1: diagnosis)” for their show notes on this topic.

Definitionstoggle arrow icon

  • Eunatremia: a normal concentration of sodium in the blood (i.e., 136–145 mEq/L).
  • Hyponatremia: reduced serum sodium concentration (< 135 mEq/L)
  • Classification [1]
    • Severity [2]
      • Mild hyponatremia: 130–135 mEq/L
      • Moderate hyponatremia: 125–129 mEq/L
      • Severe hyponatremia (profound): < 125 mEq/L
    • Disease onset [2]
      • Acute hyponatremia: < 48 hours [3]
      • Chronic hyponatremia: ≥ 48 hours or duration unknown [2]
    • Plasma osmolality (see “Etiology”)

Etiologytoggle arrow icon

Hyponatremia is classified according to serum osmolality and extracellular volume status. Multiple etiologies may be present. [1][2]

Hypotonic hyponatremia [1][4]

Causes of hypotonic hyponatremia
Hypovolemic hypotonic hyponatremia Euvolemic hypotonic hyponatremia Hypervolemic hypotonic hyponatremia
Description
Renal causes
Extrarenal causes

Thiazide diuretic use and SIADH are the most common causes of hyponatremia in the emergency department. [6]

Exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH) [7]

Exercise-associated hyponatremia is most commonly associated with marathon running but has also been reported following other exertional activities such as football, cycling, fraternity hazing, and military training. [7]

Hypertonic hyponatremia [1][4]

Isotonic hyponatremia [1][4]

Isotonic hyponatremia should always be excluded as a cause of hyponatremia to avoid unnecessarily aggressive treatment.

Pathophysiologytoggle arrow icon

Clinical featurestoggle arrow icon

Clinical features depend on the onset, duration, and severity of hyponatremia. Most patients with chronic hyponatremia are asymptomatic and symptoms typically only occur with serum sodium concentration < 120 mEq/L. [4][10]

Severely symptomatic hyponatremia [4]

Symptoms usually develop acutely (onset < 48 hours). The severity tends to correlate with the extent of cerebral edema.

Mild and moderately symptomatic hyponatremia [4]

Symptoms usually develop slowly (onset > 48 hours) and are typically nonspecific (patients can also be asymptomatic).

Depending on the underlying etiology, patients may present with signs of fluid overload, euvolemia, or volume depletion.

Diagnosistoggle arrow icon

Diagnostic approach to hyponatremia [1][2][4][8]

Initiate treatment immediately for acute or severely symptomatic hyponatremia.

Serum osmolality measurement is the first step in the evaluation of verified hyponatremia.

Diagnostic evaluation of hyponatremia based on serum osmolality

Hypotonic hyponatremia [2][4][8][11]

Interpretation of diagnostic evaluation in hypotonic hyponatremia [1][4][8]
Volume status Hypovolemic Euvolemic Hypervolemic
Urine osmolality
  • > 100 mOsmol/kg H2O
  • ≤ 100 mOsmol/kg H2O
  • > 100 mOsmol/kg H2O
  • > 100 mOsmol/kg H2O
Urine specific gravity
  • > 1.003
  • ≤ 1.003
  • > 1.003
  • > 1.003
Urine sodium
  • < 20–30 mEq/L
  • ≥ 20–30 mEq/L
  • < 20–30 mEq/L
  • ≥ 20–30 mEq/L
  • < 20–30 mEq/L
  • ≥ 20–30 mEq/L
FENa
  • < 1%
  • ≥ 1%
  • < 1%
  • ≥ 1% [8]
  • < 1%
  • ≥ 1%
Causes (see “Etiology” for more information)

In patients taking diuretics, urinary sodium concentrations should be interpreted with caution. An FEUa < 12% can provide more diagnostic accuracy than UNa to differentiate hypovolemia from euvolemia. [8]

The distinction between hypovolemia and euvolemia is usually difficult to make on examination alone; examination findings have low sensitivity and specificity. Many authors recommend focusing on urinary sodium rather than clinical features to distinguish between the two. [1][2][8]

Additional tests [1][2][8]

Consider the following based on clinical suspicion:

Hypertonic hyponatremia [4]

Isotonic hyponatremia or pseudohyponatremia [8][14][15]

If pseudohyponatremia is suspected, confirm or exclude hyponatremia using whole blood sodium.

Formulas for hyponatremiatoggle arrow icon

Hyponatremia formulas [4]
Use Formula
Serum osmolality
  • (2 × Na+) + (glucose/18) + (BUN/2.8) + (ethanol/4.6)
Corrected serum sodium concentration for hyperglycemia [17][18]
  • Katz formula: measured Na+ concentration + [0.016 × (serum glucose concentration - 100)]
  • Hillier formula: measured Na+ concentration + [0.024 × (serum glucose concentration - 100)]
Fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) [8][12]
  • Assess if the cause of hyponatremia is renal or extrarenal
  • (SCreatinine × UNa)/(UCreatinine × SNa) × 100%
Fractional excretion of urea (FEUrea) [19]
  • (UUrea × SCreatinine)/(UCreatinine × SUrea) × 100%
Fractional excretion of uric acid (FEUA) ) [2][8][20]
  • (UUA × SCreatinine)/(UCreatinine × SUA) × 100%
Urine-to-serum electrolyte ratio [21]
  • (UNa + UK)/SNa
Total body water (TBW) [22]
  • Weight (in kg) × k
    • k depends on age and sex
      • 0.6 in male individuals
      • 0.5 in female and older male individuals
      • 0.45 in older female individuals
  • Watson formula
    • Male individuals: 2.447 - 0.09156 × age (in years) + 0.1074 × height (in cm) + 0.3362 × weight (in kg)
    • Female individuals: -2.097 + 0.1069 × height (in cm) + 0.2466 × weight (in kg)
Predicted change in sodium concentration [23]
  • Predict the expected change in sodium concentration after infusing 1 L of an IV solution
IV fluid rate for correction of hyponatremia (mL/hour) [23]
  • 1000 × (Na+ correction rate in mEq/L/hour)/change in sodium concentration

Treatmenttoggle arrow icon

Approach

Rapid correction of chronic hyponatremia can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome! Do not exceed hourly or daily maximum correction limits.

Severe or moderately severe symptoms require initial aggressive treatment with IV hypertonic saline to reverse neurological symptoms and prevent brain herniation.

Hypertonic saline (emergency treatment) [1][8][11]

Early specialist consultation (intensive care, and/or nephrology) is advised.

  • Indications [1][8][11]
  • Regimen
  • Monitoring
    • Serial serum sodium measurement
      • While receiving hypertonic saline bolus: after each bolus (e.g., every 20 minutes) until symptoms resolve and sodium goal is met [8]
      • After the initial goal is met: every 4–6 hours during the first 24 hours [11]
    • Monitor urine output closely (e.g., every hour). [25][26]
  • Goal
    • Increase sodium concentration by 4–6 mEq/L within 1–2 hours [1][8][11]
    • After sodium concentration has increased by 4–6 mEq/L, consider postponing further correction until the following day. [1]
    • For acute hyponatremia: Recommendations vary; consider rapid autocorrection vs. slower correction goals. [1][8]
    • See “Recommended sodium correction rates” for daily goals and limits.

Sodium concentration should be increased by 4–6 mEq/L within 1–2 hours for patients with severe or moderately severe symptoms or acute hyponatremia. [1]

Cause-specific treatment for hyponatremia [1]

Recommended sodium correction rates [1][11]
Patients with a normal risk for ODS Patients with high-risk factors for ODS
Minimum correction rate (goal)
  • 4–8 mEq/L within 24 hours
  • 4–6 mEq/L within 24 hours
Maximum correction rate (limit)
  • 10–12 mEq/L within 24 hours
  • 18 mEq/L within 48 hours
  • 8 mEq/L within 24 hours

After management of the underlying cause of hyponatremia (e.g., discontinuation of diuretics, glucocorticoids for glucocorticoid deficiency), there is a high risk of rapid autocorrection, which can cause a dangerous increase in sodium concentration.

Urine output > 1 mL/kg/hour should raise concern for sodium overcorrection, which can lead to osmotic damage.

Hypovolemic hyponatremia [1]

Euvolemic hyponatremia [1]

Serum sodium should be monitored every 6–8 hours in patients receiving vaptan therapy to identify overcorrection. [1]

Hypervolemic hyponatremia [1]

If hyponatremia persists after diuretic use has been stopped, consider other causes. [8]

Management of sodium overcorrection [1]

Disposition

  • Severe symptomatic hyponatremia and/or treatment with hypertonic saline: ICU admission
  • Acute, symptomatic, or severe hyponatremia and/or risk factors for ODS: inpatient care
  • Asymptomatic mild hyponatremia with underlying cause identified and treated: Consider outpatient management with close follow-up.

Patients with serum sodium values < 120 mEq/L typically require intensive care; specialists should be involved early on.

Acute management checklisttoggle arrow icon

Complicationstoggle arrow icon

Correcting hyponatremia too rapidly may cause two complications: From low to high, your pons will die (osmotic demyelination syndrome); from high to low, your brain will blow (cerebral edema).

We list the most important complications. The selection is not exhaustive.

Osmotic demyelination syndrome (ODS)toggle arrow icon

Correcting hyponatremia too rapidly can cause osmotic damage to the axonal myelin sheath in the CNS.

The symptoms and imaging findings of osmotic demyelination syndrome (ODS) first appear several days after the correction of hyponatremia!

Core IM podcast 5 pearls on hyponatremia (episode 1: diagnosis)toggle arrow icon

AMBOSS has partnered with the popular Core IM podcast to bring you digestible internal medicine content on complex medical topics. In this section, you will find Core IM's 5 clinical pearls on the diagnosis of hyponatremia. Check out their website for the full show notes and listen to our coproduced episode on your favorite podcast platform.

  • Pearl 1: general approach
    • Hyponatremia is a significant clinical problem.
      • The most common electrolyte disorder, occurring in up to 30% of hospitalized patients [32]
      • May result from:
        • Underlying medical conditions
        • Medications
      • Mild chronic hyponatremia is associated with more frequent falls. [33]
    • Understand what each diagnostic test adds vs. rote dependence on algorithms.
    • Patient history and physical examination: may be helpful, but do not ignore other objective data that contradicts them!
      • History
        • Quickly assess for red flags (i.e., confusion, seizures) that require immediate intervention and ICU admission.
        • Ask about dietary history, fluid and alcohol intake, new medications, endocrine ROS, relevant comorbidities.
      • Physical examination
        • Volume status is theoretically helpful, as diagnostic algorithms depend on it, but error-prone. [34]
    • Our approach focuses on understanding what each diagnostic test adds rather than rote dependence on algorithms.
      • More helpful given that most cases of hyponatremia in the hospital are multifactorial [35]
      • Ask yourself where your patient with hyponatremia is located on a “Cartesian space” with:
    • What if we encounter a patient after intervention and with incomplete labs or urine studies?
      • Still obtain appropriate serum and urine studies to assess:
        • Response to interventions
        • Patient’s current ADH/EABV state
  • Pearl 2: serum osmolality
    • Patients with true hyponatremia are expected to have osmolality.
    • Serum osmolality can be thought of as a quality check to verify the hypothesis that low sodium is accompanied by low osmolality, as it should be.
    • Serum osmolality assessment prompts a consideration of effective and ineffective osmoles at play.
      • Effective osmoles do not cross the plasma membrane freely → shifts in water movement (impact tonicity)
      • Most of the clinical complications that arise as a result of hyponatremia (and its correction) are driven by the fact that sodium is an effective osmole that impacts tonicity and, therefore, cell size.
      • Ineffective osmoles cross the plasma membrane more readily and, therefore, do not cause shifts in water movement (do not change tonicity).
    • Serum osmolarity is not a serially measured lab! Measure it once, unless you are following clearance of an unmeasured osmole (such as a toxic alcohol) or if there is a significant sodium change that is difficult to contextualize.
  • Pearl 3: Urine osmolality (UOsm) acts as a window into ADH activity.
    • UOsm is the nearest to a direct measure of ADH activity in clinical practice. [2][39]
    • If ADH is not active, the result is dilute urine (UOsm).
      • Low UOsm on presentation indicates:
        • Too little solute to keep up with normal fluid intake (“tea-toast syndrome”) [40]
        • Too much fluid despite normal solute intake (primary polydipsia) [41][42]
        • Some combination of low solute and high intake of hypoosmolar fluid (beer potomania) [43]
      • Low UOsm can also occur in the setting of acute illness, in which many patients will push large volumes of hypotonic fluids (i.e., sports drinks) in the setting of GI losses.
    • The story of hyponatremia is often the story of ADH activity. [44]
      • ADH activity is reflected by UOsm in patients with hyponatremia.
      • If ADH is present: Figure out if this is because of EABV, osmolality, or is independent of physiological stimulus (see “Pearl 4”).
    • Remember that renal insufficiency impacts our ability to maximally dilute urine. [45]
    • Changes in UOsm (and urine output) can be assessed serially to evaluate treatment response.
      • If urine osmolality gently declines with an intervention (e.g., volume resuscitation): Your intervention has resulted in suppression of ADH (proving the hypothesis).
      • Heads up! If urine output and UOsm change dramatically in response to an intervention, this may be an early indicator that a patient is correcting too quickly!
  • Pearl 4: Urine sodium (UNa), fractional excretion of sodium (FeNa), and fractional excretion of urea (FeUrea) reveal RAAS activity.
    • UOsm acts as a window into ADH activity at a given time; it does not tell us why ADH is activated.
      • Physiological (appropriate) ADH activity can occur in the following circumstances:
      • ADH activity that is not stimulated by one of the above mechanisms is by definition inappropriate. [48]
    • UNa provides a window into the activity of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, which is more sensitive than ADH to EABV states. [49]
    • In patients with intermediate UNa , FeNa is more sensitive than UNa for reflecting EABV. [50]
      • ↓ FeNa: RAAS is active, EABV
      • Validated in oliguric patients; less reliable in patients producing large quantities of dilute urine
    • Caveats to UNa and FeNa use [2]
      • Use of diuretics (thiazide or loop) increases UNa, in which case, ↓ FeUrea is a reasonable surrogate (↓ FeNa PLUS ↓ FeUrea is better than either alone). [50]
      • CKD impairs Na reabsorption, making UNa less helpful in this patient group.
      • UNa will be low in patients with ↓ Na diets (rare in the US).
  • Pearl 5: A low serum uric acid can be helpful when considering SIADH (in other words, it points away from hypovolemic states)

Subscribe to the Core IM podcast below in “Tips and links.”

Related One-Minute Telegramtoggle arrow icon

Interested in the newest medical research, distilled down to just one minute? Sign up for the One-Minute Telegram in “Tips and links” below.

Referencestoggle arrow icon

  1. Verbalis JG, Goldsmith SR, Greenberg A, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of hyponatremia: expert panel recommendations. Am J Med. 2013; 126 (10): p.S1-S42.doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2013.07.006 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  2. Hoorn EJ, Zietse R. Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia: Compilation of the Guidelines. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017; 28 (5): p.1340-1349.doi: 10.1681/asn.2016101139 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  3. Sterns RH. Disorders of Plasma Sodium — Causes, Consequences, and Correction. N Engl J Med. 2015; 372 (1): p.55-65.doi: 10.1056/nejmra1404489 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  4. Braun MM, Barstow CH, Pyzocha NJ. Diagnosis and management of sodium disorders: hyponatremia and hypernatremia. Am Fam Physician. 2015; 91 (5): p.299-307.
  5. Gilbert, SJ; Weiner, DE. National Kidney Foundation's Primer on Kidney Disease. Elsevier Health Sciences ; 2017
  6. Olsson K, Öhlin B, Melander O. Epidemiology and characteristics of hyponatremia in the emergency department. Eur J Intern Med. 2013; 24 (2): p.110-116.doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2012.10.014 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  7. Hew-Butler T, Rosner MH, Fowkes-Godek S, et al. Statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, Carlsbad, California, 2015. Clin J Sport Med. 2015; 25 (4): p.303-320.doi: 10.1097/jsm.0000000000000221 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  8. Spasovski G, Vanholder R, Allolio B, et al. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014; 29 (suppl_2): p.i1-i39.doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfu040 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  9. Hussain I, Ahmad Z, Garg A. Extreme hypercholesterolemia presenting with pseudohyponatremia - a case report and review of the literature. J Clin Lipidol. 2015; 9 (2): p.260-264.doi: 10.1016/j.jacl.2014.11.007 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  10. Agabegi SS, Agabegi ED. Step-Up To Medicine. Wolters Kluwer Health ; 2015
  11. Adrogué HJ, Tucker BM, Madias NE. Diagnosis and Management of Hyponatremia. JAMA. 2022; 328 (3): p.280-291.doi: 10.1001/jama.2022.11176 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  12. Espinel CH. The FENa test. Use in the differential diagnosis of acute renal failure. JAMA. 1976; 236 (6): p.579-581.doi: 10.1001/jama.236.6.579 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  13. Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Loscalzo J. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twentieth Edition (Vol.1 & Vol.2). McGraw-Hill Education / Medical ; 2018
  14. Aw TC, Kiechle FL. Pseudohyponatremia. Am J Emerg Med. 1985; 3 (3): p.236-239.
  15. Kim GH. Pseudohyponatremia: Does It Matter in Current Clinical Practice?. Electrolyte Blood Press. 2006; 4 (2): p.77–82.doi: 10.5049/EBP.2006.4.2.77 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  16. Hage LE, Reineks E, Nasr C. PSEUDOHYPONATREMIA IN THE SETTING OF HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA. AACE Clin Case Rep. 2019; 5 (2): p.e172-e174.doi: 10.4158/accr-2018-0309 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  17. Sood L, Sterns RH, Hix JK, Silver SM, Chen L. Hypertonic Saline and Desmopressin: A Simple Strategy for Safe Correction of Severe Hyponatremia. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013; 61 (4): p.571-578.doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2012.11.032 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  18. Overgaard-Steensen C, Ring T. Clinical review: practical approach to hyponatraemia and hypernatraemia in critically ill patients.. Crit Care. 2013; 17 (1): p.206.doi: 10.1186/cc11805 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  19. Buchkremer F, Segerer S, Bock A. Monitoring Urine Flow to Prevent Overcorrection of Hyponatremia: Derivation of a Safe Upper Limit Based on the Edelman Equation. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019; 73 (1): p.143-145.doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2018.05.017 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  20. Ellison DH, Berl T. The Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356 (20): p.2064-2072.doi: 10.1056/nejmcp066837 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  21. Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014; 64 (5): p.681-684.doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.06.001 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  22. Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. Hyponatremia. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342 (21): p.1581-1589.doi: 10.1056/nejm200005253422107 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  23. Sterns RH, Nigwekar SU, Hix JK. The treatment of hyponatremia. Semin Nephrol. 2009; 29 (3): p.282-99.doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2009.03.002 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  24. Upadhyay A, Jaber BL, Madias NE. Incidence and Prevalence of Hyponatremia. Am J Med. 2006; 119 (7): p.S30-S35.doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.005 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  25. Renneboog B, Musch W, Vandemergel X, Manto MU, Decaux G. Mild Chronic Hyponatremia Is Associated With Falls, Unsteadiness, and Attention Deficits. Am J Med. 2006; 119 (1): p.71.e1-71.e8.doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.026 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  26. Chung H-M, Kluge R, Schrier RW, Anderson RJ. Clinical assessment of extracellular fluid volume in hyponatremia. Am J Med. 1987; 83 (5): p.905-908.doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90649-8 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  27. Hoorn EJ, Lindemans J, Zietse R. Development of severe hyponatraemia in hospitalized patients: treatment-related risk factors and inadequate management. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005; 21 (1): p.70-76.doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfi082 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  28. Martín-Calderón JL, Bustos F, Tuesta-Reina LR, Varona JM, Caballero L, Solano F. Choice of the best equation for plasma osmolality calculation: Comparison of fourteen formulae. Clin Biochem. 2015; 48 (7-8): p.529-533.doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2015.03.005 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  29. Weisberg LS. Pseudohyponatremia: A reappraisal. Am J Med. 1989; 86 (3): p.315-318.doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(89)90302-1 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  30. Katz MA. Hyperglycemia-Induced Hyponatremia — Calculation of Expected Serum Sodium Depression. N Engl J Med. 1973; 289 (16): p.843-844.doi: 10.1056/nejm197310182891607 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  31. Marts LT, Hsu DJ, Clardy PF. Mind the Gap. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014; 11 (4): p.671-674.doi: 10.1513/annalsats.201401-033cc . | Open in Read by QxMD
  32. Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Alonso C, Bergmann A. Assay for the Measurement of Copeptin, a Stable Peptide Derived from the Precursor of Vasopressin. Clin Chem. 2006; 52 (1): p.112-119.doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2005.060038 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  33. Thaler S, Teitelbaum I, Berl T. “Beer potomania” in non-beer drinkers: Effect of low dietary solute intake. AJKD. 1998; 31 (6): p.1028-1031.doi: 10.1053/ajkd.1998.v31.pm9631849 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  34. Vieweg WVR, Robertson GL, Godleski LS, Yank GR. Diurnal variation in water homeostasis among schizophrenic patients subject to water intoxication. Schizophr Res. 1988; 1 (5): p.351-357.doi: 10.1016/0920-9964(88)90048-5 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  35. de Leon J, Verghese C, Tracy JI, Josiassen RC, Simpson GM. Polydipsia and water intoxication in psychiatric patients: a review of the epidemiological literature.. Biol Psychiatry. 1994; 35 (6): p.408-19.doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(94)90008-6 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  36. Fenves AZ, Thomas S, Knochel JP. Beer potomania: two cases and review of the literature.. Clin Nephrol. 1996; 45 (1): p.61-4.
  37. Anderson RJ, Chung HM, Kluge R, Schrier RW. Hyponatremia: A Prospective Analysis of Its Epidemiology and the Pathogenetic Role of Vasopressin. Ann Intern Med. 1985; 102 (2): p.164.doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-102-2-164 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  38. Verbalis JG, Goldsmith SR, Greenberg A, Schrier RW, Sterns RH. Hyponatremia Treatment Guidelines 2007: Expert Panel Recommendations. Am J Med. 2007; 120 (11): p.S1-S21.doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.09.001 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  39. Roussel R, Fezeu L, Marre M, et al. Comparison Between Copeptin and Vasopressin in a Population From the Community and in People With Chronic Kidney Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014; 99 (12): p.4656-4663.doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-2295 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  40. Fortune BE, Garcia-Tsao G. Hypervolemic hyponatremia: Clinical significance and management. Clin. Liver Dis. 2013; 2 (3): p.109-112.doi: 10.1002/cld.179 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  41. Liamis G, Filippatos TD, Liontos A, Elisaf MS. MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Hypothyroidism-associated hyponatremia: mechanisms, implications and treatment. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016; 176 (1): p.R15-R20.doi: 10.1530/eje-16-0493 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  42. Schrier RW. Water and Sodium Retention in Edematous Disorders: Role of Vasopressin and Aldosterone. Am J Med. 2006; 119 (7): p.S47-S53.doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.007 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  43. Musch W, Thimpont J, Vandervelde D, Verhaeverbeke I, Berghmans T, Decaux G. Combined fractional excretion of sodium and urea better predicts response to saline in hyponatremia than do usual clinical and biochemical parameters. Am J Med. 1995; 99 (4): p.348-355.doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(99)80180-6 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  44. Decaux G, Dumont I, Waterlot Y, Hanson B. Mechanisms of Hypouricemia in the Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone. Nephron. 1985; 39 (3): p.164-168.doi: 10.1159/000183365 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  45. Decaux G, Schlesser M, Coffernils M, et al. Uric acid, anion gap and urea concentration in the diagnostic approach to hyponatremia.. Clin Nephrol. 1994; 42 (2): p.102-8.
  46. Beck LH. Hypouricemia in the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone.. N Engl J Med. 1979; 301 (10): p.528-30.doi: 10.1056/NEJM197909063011005 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  47. Fenske W, Störk S, Koschker A-C, et al. Value of Fractional Uric Acid Excretion in Differential Diagnosis of Hyponatremic Patients on Diuretics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 93 (8): p.2991-2997.doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-0330 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  48. Martin RJ. Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis: the osmotic demyelination syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75 (suppl_3): p.iii22-iii28.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2004.045906 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  49. Lambeck J, Hieber M, Dreßing A, Niesen W-D. Central pontine myelinolysis and osmotic demyelination syndrome. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2019.doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2019.0600 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  50. Gankam Kengne F, Soupart A, Pochet R, Brion J-P, Decaux G. Re-induction of hyponatremia after rapid overcorrection of hyponatremia reduces mortality in rats. Kidney Int. 2009; 76 (6): p.614-621.doi: 10.1038/ki.2009.254 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  51. Teresa A. Hillier, Robert D. Abbott, Eugene J. Barrett. Hyponatremia: evaluating the correction factor for hyperglycemia. Am J Med. 1999; 106 (4): p.399-403.doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(99)00055-8 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  52. Andre A. Kaplan, Orly F. Kohn. Fractional Excretion of Urea as a Guide to Renal Dysfunction. Am J Nephrol. 1992; 12 (1-2): p.49-54.doi: 10.1159/000168417 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  53. Watson PE, Watson ID, Batt RD. Total body water volumes for adult males and females estimated from simple anthropometric measurements.. Am J Clin Nutr. 1980; 33 (1): p.27-39.doi: 10.1093/ajcn/33.1.27 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  54. Claure-Del Granado R, Mehta RL. Fluid overload in the ICU: evaluation and management. BMC Nephrol. 2016; 17 (1).doi: 10.1186/s12882-016-0323-6 . | Open in Read by QxMD
  55. Cluitmans FHM, Meinders AE. Management of severe hyponatremia: Rapid or slow correction?. Am J Med. 1990; 88 (2): p.161-166.doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(90)90467-r . | Open in Read by QxMD
Sign up and get unlimited access.
disclaimer Evidence-based content, created and peer-reviewed by physicians. Read the disclaimer